Comparing Models of the Spiritual Life (article)

[Alexander]

An article comparing different mystical traditions in search of a universal path.

Having studied the works of many mystics over the years, I thought I would make an effort here to try to compare the different systems presented by each one. Even on a cursory glance, it is clear that all are referring to a universal path, though each presents the stages of development differently.

Evelyn Underhill

Let's start with Evelyn Underhill's model as presented in her work Mysticism. I have been reading from this book for many years, and it is indeed an impressive tome. Underhill is a clear authority on the Western mystical tradition, and certainly writes from the perspective of direct experience.

Underhill's model of the spiritual life is the following.

Awakening
Seeing the vanity of material life, the mystic begins the slow transformation of his values toward those of the spirit. This initial shift is the authentic meaning of the term "conversion" in Christian teaching.

Purgation
The shift from a materialistic focus to an inner focus is often difficult, and involves many personal turmoils and conflicts. In addition, the process of reorienting one's focus involves putting one's psyche in order, and addressing the dysfunctions of the mind.

Illumination
Following the completion of the purgative life, Underhill describes the beginning of the contemplative life. Here, one has gained control of one's faculties, and begins to experience true peace, joy, and rest. This stage is accompanied with the experiences of inner quiet and meditation.

Dark Night of the Soul
The advanced mystic, according to Underhill, eventually outgrows the state of quiet restfulness enjoyed in the state of illumination, and hungers for union. As the mystic reaches this state, their former consolations turn into new aridities and trials. All their progress turns to naught, like Job sitting on the ash heap, and the mystic is often left in a state of uncertainty and limbo for many years.

Union
The final stage of the mystic life, the rose, the state of completion and self-perfection. Underhill uses the Christian models of deification and the spiritual marriage to describe this state.

As part of her book, Underhill describes the stages of the contemplative life proper, which she sees as intrinsically tied to the above.
Recollection
The beginning stages of concentrating the mind, applying and sustaining the attention.

Quiet
The state in which the discursive mind is suspended, and the mystic resides in a state of quiet peacefulness.

Contemplation
The state of absorption in which the mystic is temporary elevated above himself.

Underhill's model is an attempted synthesis of the many models of the spiritual life presented throughout the Western tradition. Underhill herself remarks on the difficulty of coming to a coherent system, as different writers will often use the same word (let us take for example "contemplation") to describe separate experiences. Throughout her text, Underhill also alludes to many of the experiences of the mystics, examining topics such as ecstasy, vision, voices, automatic writing, and transport.

Eastern Christians

Let's turn now to the Eastern Christian tradition, where their model shares much in common with the above. For sources let us use the Philokalia, the Desert Fathers, and John Climacus.

Catharsis
The purification of the mind and emotions. Here, we find an analogue with the "purgation" stage above.

Theoria
The stage of "illumination" or "vision" of God. Here, we find the equivalent of the same stage above.

Theosis
Here the Greek fathers do not shy away from the language of literal "divinization" or "deification." Here would be the equivalent of "union" above. The Greek fathers were not averse to invoking the line, "God became man that man might become god."

The Eastern Christian tradition also often encompasses the following very interesting concepts, which I wanted to include here - comparing them to equivalents in other traditions where applicable.

Dispassion (apatheia), a state in which one is above slavery to the passions.

The heart (kardia), which is fascinating when one draws a comparison to the heart chakra in Eastern traditions.

Watchfulness (nepsis), which we find an analogue to in mindfulness (sati) in the East.

Discursive thought (dianoia), which is overcome in the practice of the contemplative life.
Discrimination (diakrisis), a faculty by which one discerns spiritual knowledge from worldly knowledge, discerns teachers, and obtains wisdom.

Stillness (hesychia), a state of quiet stillness.

Repentance (metanoia), the transformation of the mind and emotions to conformity with God.

Platonism

One thing I found in reading the Philokalia was the ready integration of Platonism into it. Socrates and Plato, while pre-Christian pagan philosophers, were seen as following a path in accord with the Christian one.

The Greek fathers use Plato's model of the psyche as presented in the Republic. In this text, Socrates explains the psyche as being composed of three faculties: (1) reason, (2) anger, and (3) passion. He then compares these three faculties to three types of people in the city-state: the (1) philosophers, (2) soldiers, and (3) craftsmen.

The Republic describes a "just" city-state, in which the philosophers rule with the aid of the soldiers, while the craftsmen work. Analogously, a "just" psyche has reason rule with the aid of anger, with the passions subject to them. The Kallipolis (beautiful city) is thus a parable for the psyche of the philosopher, the just man. To drive his point home, Plato then compares the Kallipolis to unjust city-states. For Plato, these would be the states of ordinary men who are not philosophers: "city-states" in which anger or the passions rule over the psyche; those consumed by greed, violence, delusion, or materialism.

The Greek fathers use this Platonic teaching in their description of the spiritual life, to explain the transformation that takes place in the state of purgation.

Teresa of Avila

Let's turn to Spain now, and one of the greatest texts of mysticism, Teresa of Avila's Inner Castle.

In this text, Teresa compares the soul of man to a castle (or mansion) with seven rooms, with each room representing a deepening state of union with God.

I was first acquainted with this text by Jeffrey Brooks, who alluded to the seven stages as possible corollaries with the eight stages of contemplation described in Buddhism. I thought this was an interesting idea at the time, although after reading Teresa's work years later I found her stages are not the same.

Here are the stages Teresa examines.

The First Mansion
The turn from worldliness to a life in the spirit; turning away from materialism and the passions toward the inner life.

The Second Mansion
The inner turmoil experienced by those who undergo this shift; the "war" in the psyche between the newly forming spiritual self and the recalcitrant physical self.

The Third Mansion
The next stage of the process of going within. Here, one begins slowly to recollect oneself; one develops the virtues; but one still does not receive spiritual consolations.

The Fourth Mansion
Here is where the contemplative life proper would be said to begin; self-arising joy and the prayer of quiet emerge. The discursive mind is subdued.

The Fifth Mansion
This mansion seems to equate with the state of "contemplation" or "absorption" described above.

The Sixth Mansion
Here, Teresa of Avila describes many of the trials experienced by those in the inner life, examines many of the phenomena that might be attributed to the supernatural (including voices and visions), and discusses the preparation for the spiritual marriage.

The Seventh Mansion
Here, Teresa of Avila describes what we would equate with the "unitive life," the "spiritual marriage" of the soul with God.

If we look at Teresa's mansions, they correlate with our stages of the mystic life above. Mansions one to three correspond with purgation; four to five with illumination; and six to seven with union.

One sympathy I have grown for Teresa's writing over the years is her inseparability of the personal life from the contemplative life. Teresa sees trials as an intrinsic part of one's growth toward the sacred. Since one is in the world, one can only understand adversities as tests sent by God to help in the path to perfection.

Patanjali

Let's turn to India, and to another great text of mystical literature, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.

For those more familiar with Buddhism, Patanjali lays out a similar "eightfold path" which takes one through the quest for liberation. Patanjali has a unique, aphoristic style: The Yoga Sutras are terse, dense lines which one can take a long time to unpack. At the same time, the careful word choice and the multi-meaning nature of the words produce a sublime formulation of the quest for enlightenment.

Patanjali's stages are the following. Similar to the Greek above, I will give you the Sanskrit, then an English translation.

1. Yamas - Five ethical rules: ahimsa (nonviolence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacarya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

2. Niyama - Five practices: shaucha (purity), santosha (contentment), tapas (austerity), svadhyaya (self-examination), and ishvarapranidhana (contemplation of God).

3. Asana - Posture; the physical exercises we associate with "Yoga" today in the West.

4. Pranayama - Breath control.

5. Pratyahara - Introversion; withdrawing the senses from external objects.

6. Dharana - Concentration; applying and sustaining the attention.

7. Dhyana - Meditation; similar to the state of quiet or the suppression of the discursive mind examined above.

8. Samadhi - The religious experience; similar to the state of absorption examined above.

Particular emphasis here might be given to the final three limbs of Patanjali: dharana, dhyana, and samadhi, which we see are equivalents of the stages described by Underhill earlier.

Buddhism

Let's turn to Buddhism now, and the description of the contemplative life as described by the jhanas.

For those unfamiliar, the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism reaches its completion in the seventh fold (sati), which we may translate as meditation or mindfulness, and the eighth fold (samadhi), which we may translate as the religious experience.

The Buddhist sutras describe meditators as traversing the four jhanas, which are the following. Similar to the above, below I will give you the Pali, followed by an English translation.

The First Jhana
Vitarka (applied attention), vicara (sustained attention), sukha (joy), piti (bliss), and ekagatta (one-pointedness).

The Second Jhana
Sukha (joy), piti (bliss), ekagatta (one-pointedness), passaddhi (tranquility), and avitakka ca aicara (no applied or sustained attention). *Tranquility may be understood as the stilling of the mind.

The Third Jhana
Sukha (joy), piti (bliss), ekagatta (one-pointedness), passaddhi (tranquility), and upekkha (equanimity). *Equanimity may be understood as a higher state of stillness. The charisms may arise in this state.

The Fourth Jhana
Piti (bliss), ekagatta (one-pointedness), passaddhi (tranquility), upekkha (equanimity), asukha ca adukkha (no pleasure and no pain). *No pleasure and no pain may be understood as referring to the state of absorption.

From here there is oftentimes a transitional state, with the same attributes of the fourth jhana accompanied by the new traits avedana (no sense experience) and viriya (energy).

This transitional state then shifts into what we in modern times would call the out-of-body experience or astral projection. Nirvana would then be the equivalent of having reached profound transformation after traversing all the higher states of the out-of-body experience.

[Alexander]

Charismatic Phenomena

A topic which comes up in mystic literature from time to time, but is rarely examined in detail, is charismatic phenomena. We see these mentioned in passing in the writings of Christian mystics. In Oriental religions, these are sometimes called the "nimitta" (signs) of contemplatives.

Generally, the appearance of these signs is seen as evidence of progress in the spiritual life. Let us briefly look at five of these as an example, first using the non-secular model, then looking at them with the secular model.

The Inner Sound
Many mystics or meditators report hearing a strange, high frequently whistling sound which persists with them throughout the day. This charism is usually associated with the experience of stilling the mind. From a religious perspective, this sound could be a sign of one "tuning in" one's frequency to a closer alignment with the higher planes.

The Spiritual Heart
There are many examples in hagiography (art of the saints or holy people) of an enflamed, warm, or open heart; we also find references to a sensation in the heart, or to "inner heat," in mystic writings. From a religious perspective, this sensation represents progress: the opening of or the movement of energy through the "spiritual heart." The Eastern tradition would see this as the opening of the heart chakra.

Vibrations
Throughout mystic literature we see references to this; of waves of energy or vibrations flowing through the body. From a religious perspective, this experience would be associated with the sensation of the aura, the meridians, or the "holy wounds" of Christ. Feeling and deepening these vibrations is often associated with the out-of-body experience in modern literature - for example, in the writings of Bob Monroe.

Spiritual Tears
Often associated with the experience of the opening of the heart, unprovoked tears are a common theme in religious literature. Although presumably a universal experience of mystics, references to them seem to be exclusive to the Christian tradition. These tears are usually associated with personal development, metanoia, and the accessing of the higher emotions.

Voices
Mystic literature is often filled with references to an inner "voice" causing the first call to break from worldly life and begin the spiritual life: for example, in the call of St. Francis. Beyond this first call to action, mystics tend to describe these inner communications as a key part of their guidance on the path to freedom.

In Underhill’s Mysticism, she explores these voices in detail, saying the more physical these voices are the less reliable they are. If we read Socrates' trial, we can find a fascinating reference that we can read as an allusion to these types of voices. Socrates states his "daimonion" is quiet during the Apology, which he takes as an approval for his conduct throughout it.

It seems these voices are both the most reliable source of knowledge for the mystic while also being the most dubious. Mystics in the "unitive life" seem to rely on these voices almost exclusively for guidance, while those in the early stages of the inner life find it easy to conflate these communications with their own self-will.

Now let's look at some of these experiences from the secular model. With the secular perspective, these "signs" are not signs at all. They are merely peculiar sensations experienced due to a deepening of awareness or sensitivity that naturally happens for a mystic.

1. The first could be simply tinnitus, which the average person does not hear due to the distractions of the discursive mind.
2. The second could just be an anomalous heat in the chest – not a sign of anything in particular – as opposed to being a heat caused by alchemical changes induced by spiritual practice.
3. The vibrations could merely be the feeling of the nervous system, which is felt in a state of deep relaxation.
4. These tears could come with ordinary emotional maturation, which does not happen to the layman, though the mystics would associate them with opening the heart chakra.
5. These voices could be interpreted as an extension of the conscience felt by all, but the mystics would say these are intuitions from the higher self or guide.

Comparing the Different Models

In the past, I have read commenters describe the chief distinction in mystic writing as being between "theological" (using God-based language) and "non-theological" (using non-God based language), although as I have studied mysticism more over the years I have come to the conclusion that this difference is very superficial. In the Western and Hindu traditions, the mystics will simply refer to their relationship with God; while in the Buddhist tradition they will simply use impersonal language instead. But, the experiences and states they describe remain a constant throughout.

I believe a more important difference between mystic writers is the extent to which they emphasize "personal experience" compared to the "contemplative life." While both are necessary for spiritual growth, in particular mystics there is often a preference for the one over the other.

If you like, we might see it as a spectrum, with the one side preferring personal experience, and the other the contemplative life.

<--------------------------------------------------------------------------->
Personal experience                                  Contemplative life

The Buddhist writers in particular seem to have a great absence of descriptions of the personal trials undergone as one grows in the spirit - while in the West, figures like Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross describe them in abundance. These trials constitute what is called the spiritual crisis, and in my readings I have found this crisis to be essential to progress.

I will leave you with a final passage on this idea: a section from Underhill's book in which she describes an experience of Henry Suso. It states an extreme "trial" he underwent during his Dark Night of the Soul. I personally have a great sympathy for this tale, and feel his act of supernatural heroism testifies to his greatness more than any ecstasy could.

A malicious woman accused him [a Dominican friar] of being the father of her child, and succeeded for the time in entirely destroying his reputation. “And the scandal was all the greater ... because the rumor of that brother’s sanctity had spread so far.”

Poor Suso was utterly crushed by this calumny, “wounded to the depths of his heart.” “Lord, Lord!” he cried, “every day of my life I have worshipped Thy holy Name in many places, and have helped to cause it to be loved and honored by many men: and now Thou wouldst drag my name through the mud!”

When the scandal was at its height, a woman of the neighborhood came to him in secret; and offered to destroy the child which was the cause of this gossip, in order that the tale might be more quickly forgotten and his reputation restored. She said further that unless the baby were somehow disposed of, he would certainly be forced by public opinion to accept it, and provide for its upbringing.

Suso, writhing as he was under the contempt of the whole neighborhood, the apparent ruin of his career—knowing, too, that this slander of one of their leaders must gravely injure the reputation of the Friends of God—was able to meet the temptation with a noble expression of trust. “I have confidence in the God of Heaven, Who is rich, and Who has given me until now all that which was needful unto me. He will help me to keep, if need be, another beside myself.” And then he said to his temptress, “Go, fetch the little child that I may see it.”
And when he had the baby, he put it on his knees and looked at it: and the baby began to smile at him. And sighing deeply, he said, “Could I kill a pretty baby that smiled at me? No, no, I had rather suffer every trial that could come upon me!” And turning his face to the unfortunate little creature, he said to it, “Oh my poor, poor little one! Thou art but an unhappy orphan, for thy unnatural father hath denied thee, thy wicked mother would cast thee off, as one casts off a little dog that has ceased to please! The providence of God hath given thee to me, in order that I may be thy father. ... Thou shalt be my son, and the child of the good God; and as long as heaven gives me a mouthful, I shall share it with thee, for the greater glory of God ... my darling son!”

The story goes on: “And when the hard-hearted woman who had wished to kill the little one saw these tears, when she heard these tender words, she was greatly moved: and her heart was filled with pity, and she too began to weep and cry aloud. ... And he enjoined the woman to care for [the child] well at his expense.”

Small wonder that after this heroic act of charity Suso’s reputation went from bad to worse; that even his dearest friends forsook him, and he narrowly escaped expulsion from the religious life. His torments and miseries, his fears for the future, continued to grow until they at last came to their term in a sort of mental crisis.

[Jhanananda]

An interesting attempt at comparative analysis of the various contemplative traditions.  I was reminded when reading your list that Christianity went through an early crisis as exhibited by the first Nicaean council.  I recently did deeper reading on the theological politics behind this counsel and realized that Arius represented the Church of the East, which was founded by the Apostle Thomas, and was a truly contemplative religion, and the Desert Fathers, as you referred to them were clearly influenced by the Church of the East.

The consequence of the conclusion of the First Nicaean Council results in the banishment of the competitor against Arius, and Arius essential won the debate, and Constantine was actually baptized into this movement by a follower of Arius. After Constantine's death Arius dies soon after, and eventually the banished leader of the competing faction is released from banishment and returns to Constantinople and sets to work alienating the movement behind Arius, ultimately resulting in The Arian Heresy.

It is at this point that Orthodox Christianity is formed, and a few centuries later Catholicism is formed, and these two forms of Christianity work to suppress any form of the Church of the East. Along the way, Orthodox Christianity appropriates the desert fathers most probably because they had too much influence already in place in Egyptian culture.

Along the way we find the Catholic Church suppresses every contemplative movement, such as the Cathars, but they had to tolerate Teresa of Avila, because she came from a wealthy, powerful and influential family, so they had to embrace her, while ignoring her for centuries. 

After Teresa of Avila, came the quietist movement which was driven by contemplative Christians who were surely influenced by Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross. It was the Protestant rebellion that cave birth to the Quakers who were clearly contemplatives, but they found themselves marginalized by both Protestants and Catholics.

So, my point is the various Christian contemplative movements in history are difficult to understand because they existed in a social structure that persecuted them, and often we have the distorted view of the persecutors and not the direct expression of the mystic, except in a few cases where they had to modify their expression to survive.  Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross are examples.

[Jhanananda]

You might also start this piece with the common use of the term "fruit" for these phenomena, which we see in the Pali Canon as "samina Phala." The term "phala" also appears in the Yoga Sutras, and then we see the concept of the "fruit of spirit" appears in the Gospels, so these concepts are easily linked cross culturally with the single term "fruit."

Secondly, the concept of noble behavior also appears in these 3 schools as :fruit" but you ignored these subjects.  We should keep in mind "we know a tree by its fruit." We should keep in mind the spiritual transformation should result in better behavior, not just religious phenomena.

[Tad]

It would be interesting to compare levels of awakening among different traditions.

[Jhanananda]

It would be interesting to compare levels of awakening among different traditions.

I agree, and I propose we measure that level of enlightenment by the level of samadhi achieved, and the various superior fruit (maha-phala) attained.