SUMMARY
Twenty-four volunteers, mean age 78, including eight mildly non-insulin-dependent diabetics, were randomly allocated to one of two groups and were fed (daily for 8 wk) 9 g of either chromium-rich brewers' yeast (experimental) or chromium-poor torula yeast (control). Before and after yeast supplementation, the serum glucose and insulin response to 100 g oral glucose was measured at 30 min intervals for 2 h. Fasting serum cholesterol, total lipids, and triglycerides were also determined. In the total experimental group (normals + diabetics) and in both the diabetic and nondiabetic experimental subgroups, glucose tolerance improved significantly and insulin output decreased after supplementation. Cholesterol and total lipids fell significantly after supplementation in the total experimental group. The cholesterol decrease was particularly marked in hypercholesterolemic subjects (cholesterol > 300 mg/dl). In the control group, no significant change in glucose tolerance, insulin, triglycerides, or total lipids was found. Cholesterol was significantly lowered in the nondiabetic but not in the diabetic group. Thus, chromium-rich brewers' yeast improved glucose tolerance and total lipids in elderly subjects, while chromium-poor torula yeast did not. An improvement in insulin sensitivity also occurred with brewers' yeast supplementation. This supports the thesis that elderly people may have a low level of chromium and that an effective source for chromjum repletion, such as brewers' yeast, may improve their carbohydrate tolerance and total lipids. The improvement in serum cholesterol in some control subjects, as well as in the total experimental group, also suggests the presence of a hypocholesterolemic factor other than chromium in both brewers' and torula yeast.
Chromium: What is it?
Chromium is a mineral that humans require in trace amounts, although its mechanisms of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimal health are not well defined. It is found primarily in two forms: 1) trivalent (chromium 3+), which is biologically active and found in food, and 2) hexavalent (chromium 6+), a toxic form that results from industrial pollution. This fact sheet focuses exclusively on trivalent (3+) chromium.
Chromium is known to enhance the action of insulin [1-3], a hormone critical to the metabolism and storage of carbohydrate, fat, and protein in the body [4]. In 1957, a compound in brewers' yeast was found to prevent an age-related decline in the ability of rats to maintain normal levels of sugar (glucose) in their blood [3]. Chromium was identified as the active ingredient in this so-called "glucose tolerance factor" in 1959 [5].
Chromium also appears to be directly involved in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism [1-2,6-11], but more research is needed to determine the full range of its roles in the body. The challenges to meeting this goal include:
Chromium is widely distributed in the food supply, but most foods provide only small amounts (less than 2 micrograms [mcg] per serving). Meat and whole-grain products, as well as some fruits, vegetables, and spices are relatively good sources [12]. In contrast, foods high in simple sugars (like sucrose and fructose) are low in chromium [13].
Dietary intakes of chromium cannot be reliably determined because the content of the mineral in foods is substantially affected by agricultural and manufacturing processes and perhaps by contamination with chromium when the foods are analyzed [10,12,14]. Therefore, Table 1, and food-composition databases generally, provide approximate values of chromium in foods that should only serve as a guide.
| Table 1: Selected food sources of chromium [12,15-16] Food Chromium (mcg) Broccoli, ½ cup 11 Grape juice, 1 cup 8 English muffin, whole wheat, 1 4 Potatoes, mashed, 1 cup 3 Garlic, dried, 1 teaspoon 3 Basil, dried, 1 tablespoon 2 Beef cubes, 3 ounces 2 Orange juice, 1 cup 2 Turkey breast, 3 ounces 2 Whole wheat bread, 2 slices 2 Red wine, 5 ounces 1–13 Apple, unpeeled, 1 medium 1 Banana, 1 medium 1 Green beans, ½ cup 1 |
What are recommended intakes of chromium?
Recommended chromium intakes are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) developed by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences [14]. Dietary Reference Intakes is the general term for a set of reference values to plan and assess the nutrient intakes of healthy people. These values include the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and the Adequate Intake (AI). The RDA is the average daily intake that meets a nutrient requirement of nearly all (97 to 98%) healthy individuals [14]. An AI is established when there is insufficient research to establish an RDA; it is generally set at a level that healthy people typically consume.
In 1989, the National Academy of Sciences established an "estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake" range for chromium. For adults and adolescents that range was 50 to 200 mcg [17]. In 2001, DRIs for chromium were established. The research base was insufficient to establish RDAs, so AIs were developed based on average intakes of chromium from food as found in several studies [14].
Adult women in the United States consume about 23 to 29 mcg of chromium per day from food, which meets their AIs unless they're pregnant or lactating. In contrast, adult men average 39 to 54 mcg per day, which exceeds their AIs [14].
The average amount of chromium in the breast milk of healthy, well-nourished mothers is 0.24 mcg per quart, so infants exclusively fed breast milk obtain about 0.2 mcg (based on an estimated consumption of 0.82 quarts per day) [14]. Infant formula provides about 0.5 mcg of chromium per quart [18]. No studies have compared how well infants absorb and utilize chromium from human milk and formula [10,14]...
| FOOD CHROMIUM CONTENT FOOD (micrograms per 100 grams of food) Egg yolk 183 Brewer's yeast 112 Beef 57 Cheese 56 Liver 55 Wine 45 Bread, wholemeal, wheat 42 Black pepper 35 Rye bread 30 Chilli, fresh 30 Apple peel 27 Potatoes, old 27 Oysters 26 Potatoes, new 21 Margarine 18 Spaghetti 15 Cornflakes 14 Spirits 14 Butter 13 Spinach 10 Egg white 8 Oranges 5 Beer 3-30 Apples, peeled 1 |
I eat 3 whole eggs daily as well. I fry them in coconut oil. It's natures perfect food. I hope that your theory on the correlation between blood sugar levels and eggs turns out to be false. It would be a shame to have to remove them from your diet.No I am not saying that there is a problem with egg yokes and chromium. I am saying that egg yokes contain significantly more chromium than yeast. I too have been eating 3 eggs a day for at least 6 months with no apparent reduction in my blood sugar level. Then I added 2 tablespoons of yeast to my diet and had my daily blood sugar drop about 80 points. So, I am confused why? Perhaps I should have been eating 6 eggs a day, or possibly yeast has other factors in it that eggs do not have for lowering blood sugar.
Eggs are laid by female animals of many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, and have been eaten by humans for thousands of years.[1] Bird and reptile eggs consist of a protective eggshell, albumen (egg white), and vitellus (egg yolk), contained within various thin membranes. Popular choices for egg consumption are chicken, duck, quail, roe, and caviar, but the egg most often consumed by humans is the chicken egg.
Egg yolks and whole eggs store significant amounts of protein and choline,[2][3] and are widely used in cookery. Due to their protein content, the United States Department of Agriculture categorizes eggs as Meats within the Food Guide Pyramid.[2]
Chickens and other egg-laying creatures are widely kept throughout the world, and mass production of chicken eggs is a global industry. In 2009, an estimated 62.1 million metric tons of eggs were produced worldwide from a total laying flock of approximately 6.4 billion hens.[4] There are issues of regional variation in demand and expectation, as well as current debates concerning methods of mass production.
Type 2 diabetes
Studies have shown conflicting results about a possible connection between egg consumption and type two diabetes. A 1999 prospective study of over 117,000 people by the Harvard School of Public Health concluded, in part, that "The apparent increased risk of CHD associated with higher egg consumption among diabetic participants warrants further research."[42] A 2008 study by the Physicians' Health Study I (1982–2007) and the Women's Health Study (1992–2007) determined the “data suggest that high levels of egg consumption (daily) are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes.”[43] However, a study published in 2010 found no link between egg consumption and type 2 diabetes.[44] A meta-analysis from 2013 finds that each 4 eggs per week that are added to the diet increase the risk of diabetes by 29%.[45] Another meta-analysis from 2013 also supported the idea that egg consumption may lead to an increased incidence of type two diabetes mellitus.[46]
RESULTS—During mean follow-up of 20.0 years in men and 11.7 years in women, 1,921 men and 2,112 women developed type 2 diabetes. Compared with no egg consumption, multivariable adjusted hazard ratios for type 2 diabetes were 1.09 (95% CI 0.87–1.37), 1.09 (0.88–1.34), 1.18 (0.95–1.45), 1.46 (1.14–1.86), and 1.58 (1.25–2.01) for consumption of <1, 1, 2–4, 5–6, and ≥7 eggs/week, respectively, in men (P for trend <0.0001). Corresponding multivariable hazard ratios for women were 1.06 (0.92–1.22), 0.97 (0.83–1.12), 1.19 (1.03–1.38), 1.18 (0.88–1.58), and 1.77 (1.28–2.43), respectively (P for trend <0.0001).
CONCLUSIONS—These data suggest that high levels of egg consumption (daily) are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in men and women. Confirmation of these findings in other populations is warranted.
Highlights
•Egg consumption increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases in a dose–response manner, especially in patients with diabetes.
•There is a dose–response positive relationship between egg consumption and the risk of diabetes.
•Individuals in other western countries seem to have a higher risk of cardiovascular diseases than the ones in the USA under high egg consumption.
Results
Fourteen studies involving 320,778 subjects were included. The pooled RRs of the risk of CVD, CVD for separated diabetes patients, and diabetes for the highest vs lowest egg intake were 1.19 (95% CI 1.02–1.38), 1.83 (95% CI 1.42–2.37), 1.68 (95% CI 1.41–2.00), respectively. For each 4/week increment in egg intake, the RRs of the risk for CVD, CVD for separated diabetes patients, diabetes was 1.06 (95% CI 1.03–1.10), 1.40 (95% CI 1.25–1.57), 1.29 (95% CI 1.21–1.37), respectively. Subgroup analyses showed that population in other western countries have increased CVD than ones in USA (RR 2.00, 95% CI 1.14 to 3.51 vs 1.13, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.30, P = 0.02 for subgroup difference).
Conclusions
Our study suggests that there is a dose–response positive association between egg consumption and the risk of CVD and diabetes.
Results: A total of 22 independent cohorts from 16 studies were identified, including participants ranging in number from 1600 to 90,735 and in follow-up time from 5.8 to 20.0 y. Comparison of the highest category (≥1 egg/d) of egg consumption with the lowest (<1 egg/wk or never) resulted in a pooled HR (95% CI) of 0.96 (0.88, 1.05) for overall CVD, 0.97 (0.86, 1.09) for ischemic heart disease, 0.93 (0.81, 1.07) for stroke, 0.98 (0.77, 1.24) for ischemic heart disease mortality, 0.92 (0.56, 1.50) for stroke mortality, and 1.42 (1.09, 1.86) for type 2 diabetes. Of the studies conducted in diabetic patients, the pooled HR (95% CI) was 1.69 (1.09, 2.62) for overall CVD.
Conclusions: This meta-analysis suggests that egg consumption is not associated with the risk of CVD and cardiac mortality in the general population. However, egg consumption may be associated with an increased incidence of type 2 diabetes among the general population and CVD comorbidity among diabetic patients.
Chicken egg
whole, hard-boiled Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Carbohydrates 1.12 g
Fat 10.6 g
Protein 12.6 g
A milkman (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkman) is a person who delivers milk in milk bottles or cartons. Truck drivers who transport milk from a farm to a milk processing plant are also known as milkmen. Raw milk is picked up daily, or every other day.[1]New England virtual dairy history From Dairy to Doorstep (http://www.historicnewengland.org/collections-archives-exhibitions/online-exhibitions/From_Diary_to_Doorstep)
Milk deliveries frequently occur in the morning and it is not uncommon for milkmen to deliver products other than milk such as eggs, cream, cheese, butter, yogurt or soft drinks.
Originally, milk needed to be delivered to houses daily since the lack of good refrigeration meant it would quickly spoil. The near-ubiquity of refrigerators in homes in the developed world, as well as improved packaging, has decreased the need for frequent milk delivery over the past half-century and made the trade shrink in many localities sometimes to just 3 days a week and disappear totally in others. Additionally, milk delivery incurs a small cost on the price of dairy products that is increasingly difficult to justify and leaves delivered milk in a position where it is vulnerable to theft.
In some areas apartments would have small milk delivery doors. A small wooden cabinet inside of the apartment, built into the exterior wall, would have doors on both sides, latched but not locked. Milk or groceries could be placed in the box by a milkman, and collected by the homeowner.
In various countries
In recent times, British, Irish, and other European milkmen have traveled in an electric vehicle called a milk float, except on rural rounds. Earlier, milkmen used horse-drawn vehicles; in Britain these were still seen in the 1950s. In parts of the U.S., they continued at least into the 1960s. In Australia the delivery vehicle was usually a small gas or diesel engined truck with a covered milk-tray. In hotter areas, this tray is usually insulated.
In the United States and Canada, houses of that era often had a "milk chute" built into an outside wall, a small cabinet with a door on the outside for the milkman to place the milk bottles, and a door on the inside for a resident to retrieve the bottles. Thus the milkman could deliver the milk without entering the home, and the resident could retrieve the milk without going outside. While rare, milk delivery does still occur in the United States. In 2005 about 0.4% of consumers had their milk delivered, and a handful of newer companies had sprung up to offer the service.[2]
In 1915, Peter J. Oberweis found that he had too much milk so he began selling it to neighbors. In essence, the family dairy business that now spans almost 100 years had begun.
The Oberweis family has been delivering milk to homes since 1927 when Peter bought a half partnership in the Big Woods Dairy.
Chromium increases the sensitivity of insulin for it to carry the sugar into your tissues hence less blood sugar. It is by no means a cure for diabetes.Thank-you Sam, for the response. I am currently speculating that eggs are just plane bad for everyone's health and especially mine.
Protein in eggs as with any other proteins can turn into glucose in your blood stream. Furthermore, biotin in egg white reduces the absorption of B vitamins.
Brewer's yeast does not have vitamin B12.
Try eating egg yokes only. Maybe there's an ingredient in egg white that is the culprit.Thanks, Michel. I think I am just going to forgo the egg as soon as I have consumed the last one in the refrigerator. Trying to separate the yoke from the white is just more trouble that I am willing to go to.
Nutritional yeast (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritional_yeast#Nutrition) is a deactivated yeast, often a strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is sold commercially as a food product. It is sold in the form of flakes or as a yellow powder and can be found in the bulk aisle of most natural food stores. It is popular with vegans and vegetarians and may be used as an ingredient in recipes or as a condiment.[1]
It is a source of protein and vitamins, especially the B-complex vitamins, and is a complete protein. It is also naturally low in fat and sodium and is free of sugar, dairy, and gluten. Sometimes nutritional yeast is fortified with vitamin B12.
Nutritional yeast has a strong flavor that is described as nutty, cheesy, or creamy, which makes it popular as an ingredient in cheese substitutes. It is often used by vegans in place of cheese.[2] It can be used in many recipes in place of cheese, such as in mashed and fried potatoes, and atop scrambled tofu. Another popular use is as a topping for popcorn.[3]
Nutrition
Nutritional values for nutritional yeast vary from one manufacturer to another. On average, two tablespoons provides 60 calories with 5 g of carbohydrates (of which 4 g is fiber). A serving also provides 9 g of protein and is a complete protein, providing all nine amino acids the human body cannot produce. It is also a source of chromium, selenium and potassium. While fortified and unfortified nutritional yeast both provide iron, the fortified yeast provides 20 percent of the recommended daily value, while unfortified yeast provides only 5 percent. Unfortified nutritional yeast provides from 35 to 100 percent of all of the B vitamins, except for B12. Fortified nutritional yeast adds 150 percent of vitamin B12 and 720 percent of riboflavin.[6]
Because nutritional yeast is often used by vegans, who need to supplement their diets with vitamin B12, there has been confusion about the source of the B12 in nutritional yeast. Yeast cannot produce B12, which is only naturally produced by bacteria. Some brands of nutritional yeast, though not all, are fortified with vitamin B12. When fortified, the vitamin B12 is produced separately (commonly cyanocobalamin) and then added to the yeast.[7][8]
Although some species of bacteria that can produce B12 could potentially grow along with S. cerevisiae in the wild, commercially produced nutritional yeast is grown in controlled conditions that would normally not allow those bacteria to grow. Therefore, nutritional yeast should not be relied upon as a source of B12 unless it is fortified.
Glutamic acid
Nutritional yeast products do not have any added monosodium glutamate; however, all inactive yeast contains a certain amount of free glutamic acid because when the yeast cells are killed, the protein that comprises the cell walls begins to degrade, breaking down into the amino acids that originally formed it. Glutamic acid is a naturally occurring amino acid in all yeast cells, as well as in many vegetables, fungi and meats.
Brewing yeasts (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast#Beer) may be classed as "top-cropping" (or "top-fermenting") and "bottom-cropping" (or "bottom-fermenting").[44] Top-cropping yeasts are so called because they form a foam at the top of the wort during fermentation. An example of a top-cropping yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, sometimes called an "ale yeast".[45] Bottom-cropping yeasts are typically used to produce lager-type beers, though they can also produce ale-type beers. These yeasts ferment well at low temperatures. An example of bottom-cropping yeast is Saccharomyces pastorianus, formerly known as S. carlsbergensis.
Decades ago, taxonomists reclassified S. carlsbergensis (uvarum) as a member of S. cerevisiae, noting that the only distinct difference between the two is metabolic. Lager strains of S. cerevisiae secrete an enzyme called melibiase, allowing them to hydrolyse melibiose, a disaccharide, into more fermentable monosaccharides. Top- and bottom-cropping and cold- and warm-fermenting distinctions are largely generalizations used by laypersons to communicate to the general public.[46]
The most common top-cropping brewer's yeast, S. cerevisiae, is the same species as the common baking yeast.[47] Brewer's yeast is also very rich in essential minerals and the B vitamins (except B12).[48] However, baking and brewing yeasts typically belong to different strains, cultivated to favour different characteristics: baking yeast strains are more aggressive, to carbonate dough in the shortest amount of time possible; brewing yeast strains act slower but tend to produce fewer off-flavours and tolerate higher alcohol concentrations (with some strains, up to 22%).
Chromium increases the sensitivity of insulin for it to carry the sugar into your tissues hence less blood sugar. It is by no means a cure for diabetes.Thank-you Sam, for the response. I am currently speculating that eggs are just plane bad for everyone's health and especially mine.
Protein in eggs as with any other proteins can turn into glucose in your blood stream. Furthermore, biotin in egg white reduces the absorption of B vitamins.
Brewer's yeast does not have vitamin B12.
As for Brewer's Yest not having vitamin B12. It just does not make sense, because fermentation tends to lead to vitamin B12 production. So, I checked and found that yest supposedly does have B12.
http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/custom/1323569/2Try eating egg yokes only. Maybe there's an ingredient in egg white that is the culprit.Thanks, Michel. I think I am just going to forgo the egg as soon as I have consumed the last one in the refrigerator. Trying to separate the yoke from the white is just more trouble that I am willing to go to.
37 years without any (or hardly any) animal products; that is most encouraging, friend :) Please do let me know how your experiment turns out.Yes, I consumed very few animal products for 37 years. My diet was very high in raw, fresh, organic produce; almost no eggs, definitely no meat, and very few eggs. Also, no refined anything, and I preferred low sweetened, whole grain bakery items.
I wonder if kombucha contains nutritional yeast? I know very little about kombucha.I have drunk kombucha. I found it much too sweet for my pallet. I believe fermented foods, and no eggs, are part of the puzzle of coming to a wholesome, and sustainable diet system.
Cottage cheese
Nutrition Facts
Amount Per 1 cup, small curd (not packed) (225 g)
Total Carbohydrate 8 g 2%
cream
1 cup (120 g)
Total Carbohydrate 3 g 1%
Nutritional values for nutritional yeast vary from one manufacturer to another. On average, two tablespoons provides 60 calories with 5 g of carbohydrates (of which 4 g is fiber). A serving also provides 9 g of protein and is a complete protein, providing all nine amino acids the human body cannot produce.It does not look like I have added a significant amount of carbs to my diet by replacing eggs with nutritional yeast, cream and cream cheese. So, the best explanation that I can continue to support is eggs have so much chromium in them that just replacing one egg with 1 table spoon full of nutritional yeast is not enough chromium. So, I added 4 table spoons full of nutritional yeast to my diet today. I will check my morning blood sugar tomorrow to see what the results are.
Amount Per 1 large egg (50 g)CHROMIUM CONTENT OF SOME FOODS (http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/info/books-phds/books/foodfacts/html/data/data5m.html)
Total Carbohydrate 0.6 g
| (micrograms per 100 grams of food) Egg yolk 183 Brewer's yeast 112 |
I think your body is still producing glucose, hence the higher blood glucose count. Once it stabilizes, then you can have a better or lower blood glucose count.Yes, I agree that my body must be creating the sugar that my meter is detecting, because my diet is just so low in carbs, which has been a source of frustration for me in trying to find a diet that will keep my blood sugar level within normal. This morning my blood sugar level was 130, which is not bad, but has been better.
Chromium is a chemical element with symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first element in Group 6. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard and brittle metal[2] which takes a high polish, resists tarnishing, and has a high melting point. The name of the element is derived from the Greek word χρῶμα, chrōma, meaning colour,[3] because many of its compounds are intensely coloured.Conclusion:
Chromium oxide was used by the Chinese in the Qin dynasty over 2,000 years ago to coat metal weapons found with the Terracotta Army. Chromium was discovered as an element after it came to the attention of the western world in the red crystalline mineral crocoite (lead(II) chromate), discovered in 1761 and initially used as a pigment.
Since Vauquelin's first production of metallic chromium, small amounts of native (free) chromium metal have been discovered in rare minerals, but these are not used commercially. Instead, nearly all chromium is commercially extracted from the single commercially viable ore chromite, which is iron chromium oxide (FeCr2O4). Chromite is also now the chief source of chromium for chromium pigments.
Chromium metal and ferrochromium alloy are commercially produced from chromite by silicothermic or aluminothermic reactions, or by roasting and leaching processes. Chromium metal has proven of high value due to its high corrosion resistance and hardness. A major development was the discovery that steel could be made highly resistant to corrosion and discoloration by adding metallic chromium to form stainless steel. This application, along with chrome plating (electroplating with chromium) currently comprise 85% of the commercial use for the element, with applications for chromium compounds forming the remainder.
Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) ion is possibly required in trace amounts for sugar and lipid metabolism, although the issue remains in debate.[4] In larger amounts and in different forms, chromium can be toxic and carcinogenic. The most prominent example of toxic chromium is hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)). Abandoned chromium production sites often require environmental cleanup.
Occurrence
Chromium is the 22nd most abundant element in Earth's crust with an average concentration of 100 ppm.[8] Chromium compounds are found in the environment, due to erosion of chromium-containing rocks and can be distributed by volcanic eruptions. The concentrations range in soil is between 1 and 300 mg/kg, in sea water 5 to 800 µg/liter, and in rivers and lakes 26 µg/liter to 5.2 mg/liter.[9] Chromium is mined as chromite (FeCr2O4) ore.[10] About two-fifths of the chromite ores and concentrates in the world are produced in South Africa, while Kazakhstan, India, Russia, and Turkey are also substantial producers. Untapped chromite deposits are plentiful, but geographically concentrated in Kazakhstan and southern Africa.[11]
Biological role
Recently, a paradigm shift has occurred in terms of the status of trivalent chromium (Cr(III) or Cr3+). It was first proposed to be an essential element in the late 1950s and accepted as a trace element in the 1980s. However, scientific studies have continued to fail to produce convincing evidence for this status.[49] Trivalent chromium occurs in trace amounts in foods and waters, and appears to be benign.[50] In contrast, hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI) or Cr6+) is very toxic and mutagenic when inhaled. Cr(VI) has not been established as a carcinogen when in solution, although it may cause allergic contact dermatitis (ACD).[51]
Chromium deficiency, involving a lack of Cr(III) in the body, or perhaps some complex of it, such as glucose tolerance factor is controversial, or is at least extremely rare. Chromium has no verified biological role and has been classified by some as not essential for mammals.[52] However, other reviews have regarded it as an essential trace element in humans.[53]
Chromium deficiency has been attributed to only three people on long-term parenteral nutrition, which is when a patient is fed a liquid diet through intravenous drips for long periods of time.[54]
Although no biological role for chromium has ever been demonstrated, dietary supplements for chromium include chromium(III) picolinate, chromium(III) polynicotinate, and related materials. The benefit of those supplements is questioned by some studies.[55] The use of chromium-containing dietary supplements is controversial, owing to the absence of any verified biological role, the expense of these supplements, and the complex effects of their use.[4] The popular dietary supplement chromium picolinate complex generates chromosome damage in hamster cells (due to the picolinate ligand).[56] In the United States the dietary guidelines for daily chromium uptake were lowered in 2001 from 50–200 µg for an adult to 35 µg (adult male) and to 25 µg (adult female).[57]
No comprehensive, reliable database of chromium content of food currently exists.[58] Data reported prior to 1980 is unreliable due to analytical error.[58] Chromium content of food varies widely due to differences in soil mineral content, growing season, plant cultivar, and contamination during processing.[58] In addition, large amounts of chromium (and nickel) leech into food cooked in stainless steel.[59][60]
Nutrition of Nutritional Yeast
Nutritional values for nutritional yeast vary from one manufacturer to another. On average, two tablespoons provides:
60 calories
5 g of carbohydrates (of which 4 g is fiber).
9 g of protein and is a complete protein, providing all nine amino acids the human body cannot produce.
chromium,
selenium
potassium. While fortified and unfortified nutritional yeast both provide iron, the fortified yeast provides 20 percent of the recommended daily value, while unfortified yeast provides only 5 percent.
Unfortified nutritional yeast provides from 35 to 100 percent of all of the B vitamins, except for B12.
Fortified nutritional yeast adds 150 percent of vitamin B12 and 720 percent of riboflavin.[6]
Because nutritional yeast is often used by vegans, who need to supplement their diets with vitamin B12, there has been confusion about the source of the B12 in nutritional yeast. Yeast cannot produce B12, which is only naturally produced by bacteria. Some brands of nutritional yeast, though not all, are fortified with vitamin B12. When fortified, the vitamin B12 is produced separately (commonly cyanocobalamin) and then added to the yeast.[7][8]
Although some species of bacteria that can produce B12 could potentially grow along with S. cerevisiae in the wild, commercially produced nutritional yeast is grown in controlled conditions that would normally not allow those bacteria to grow. Therefore, nutritional yeast should not be relied upon as a source of B12 unless it is fortified.
Vitamins in Nutritional Yeast
Amounts Per Selected Serving
%DV
Vitamin A 0.0 IU 0%
Vitamin C 0.0mg 0%
Vitamin D 0.0IU 0%
Vitamin E (Alpha Tocopherol) 0.0mg 0%
Vitamin K 0.0mcg 0%
Thiamin 9.6mg 640%
Riboflavin 9.7mg 570%
Niacin 56.0mg 280%
Vitamin B6 9.6mg 480%
Folate 240mcg 60%
Vitamin B12 7.8mcg 130%
Pantothenic Acid 1.0 mg 10%
Choline ~
Betaine ~
Minerals in Nutritional Yeast
Amounts Per Selected Serving
%DV
Calcium 0.0mg 0%
Iron0.7mg 4%
Magnesium 24.0mg 6%
Phosphorus 0.0mg 0%
Potassium 0.0mg 0%
Sodium 5.0mg 0%
Zinc 3.0mg 20%
Copper 0.1mg 6%
Manganese 0.1mg 6%
Selenium 0.0mcg 0%
Fluoride ~
nutritional value of egg
Amount Per 1 large (50 g)
Calories 78
% Daily Value*
Total Fat 5 g 7%
Saturated fat 1.6 g 8%
Polyunsaturated fat 0.7 g
Monounsaturated fat 2 g
Cholesterol 187 mg 62%
Sodium 62 mg 2%
Potassium 63 mg 1%
Total Carbohydrate 0.6 g 0%
Dietary fiber 0 g 0%
Sugar 0.6 g
Protein 6 g 12%
Vitamin A 5% Vitamin C 0%
Calcium 2% Iron 3%
Vitamin D 11% Vitamin B-6 5%
Vitamin B-12 10% Magnesium 1%
CHROMIUM CONTENT OF SOME FOODS (http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/info/books-phds/books/foodfacts/html/data/data5m.html)Conclusion, there are no known nutrients available in Nutritional Yeast that are not more available in eggs, yet eggs were not enough for my recovery from type 2 diabetes without the aide of Nutritional Yeast, and vice versa.
FOOD CHROMIUM CONTENT FOOD
(micrograms per 100 grams of food)
Egg yolk 183
Brewer's yeast 112
What Is The Normal Range For Blood Sugar Levels (http://abcnews.go.com/Health/DiabetesScreening/story?id=3812946), And What Blood Sugar Level Constitutes A True Emergency?
August 14, 2008
Edward S. Horton, M.D., Section Head, Clinical Research at Joslin Diabetes Center; Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School
Question:What is the normal range for blood sugar levels, and what blood sugar level constitutes a true emergency?
Answer:Now, in a normal individual we measure blood sugar under different circumstances. What we call fasting blood sugar or blood glucose levels is usually done six to eight hours after the last meal. So it's most commonly done before breakfast in the morning; and the normal range there is 70 to 100 milligrams per deciliter.
Now when you eat a meal, blood sugar generally rises and in a normal individual it usually does not get above a 135 to 140 milligrams per deciliter. So there is a fairly narrow range of blood sugar throughout the entire day.
Now in our diabetic patients we see both low blood sugar levels that we call hypoglycemia, or elevated blood sugars, hyperglycemia. Now, if the blood sugar drops below about 60 or 65 milligrams per deciliter, people will generally get symptoms, which are some shakiness, feeling of hunger, maybe a little racing of the heart and they will usually be trenchant or if they eat something, it goes away right away. But if blood sugar drops below 50 and can get down as low as 40 or 30 or even 20, then there is a progressive loss of mental function and eventually unconsciousness and seizures. And of course that is very dangerous and a medical emergency.
On the other side, if blood sugar gets up above 180 to 200, then it exceeds the capacity of the kidneys to reabsorb the glucose and we begin to spill glucose into the urine. And if it gets way up high, up in the 400s or even 500s, it can be associated with some alteration in mental function. And in this situation, if it persists for a long time, we can actually see mental changes as well. So either too low or very exceedingly high can cause changes in mental function.
Despite widespread use by patients with diabetes and anecdotal reports in the past regarding its efficacy, until recently, data in humans concerning chromium’s effects on insulin action in vivo or on cellular aspects of insulin action were scarce...
The interest in chromium as a nutritional enhancement to glucose metabolism can be traced back to the 1950s, when it was suggested that brewer’s yeast contained a glucose tolerance factor (GTF) that prevented diabetes in experimental animals (1). This factor was eventually suggested to be a biologically active form of trivalent chromium that could substantially lower plasma glucose levels in diabetic mice (2).
Chromium, one of the most common elements in the earth’s crust and seawater, exists in our environment in several oxidation states, principally as metallic (Cr0), trivalent (+3), and hexavalent (+6) chromium. The latter is largely synthesized by the oxidation of the more common and naturally occurring trivalent chromium and is highly toxic. Trivalent chromium, found in most foods and nutrient supplements, is an essential nutrient with very low toxicity. Interest regarding chromium administration in patients with diabetes was kindled by the observation in the 1970s that it truly was an essential nutrient required for normal carbohydrate metabolism. A patient receiving total parenteral nutrition (TPN) developed severe signs of diabetes, including weight loss and hyperglycemia that was refractory to increasing insulin dosing (3). Based on previous animal studies and preliminary human studies, the patient was given supplemental chromium. In the following 2 weeks, signs and symptoms of diabetes were ameliorated, with markedly improved glycemic status and greatly reduced insulin requirements (exogenous insulin requirements decreased from 45 units/day to none). Other studies (4,5) of the beneficial effects of chromium in patients receiving TPN have also been documented in the scientific literature. Chromium is now routinely added to TPN solutions (5).
Trivalent chromium is found in a wide range of foods, including egg yolks, whole-grain products, high-bran breakfast cereals, coffee, nuts, green beans, broccoli, meat, brewer’s yeast, and some brands of wine and beer (8,9). Chromium is also present in many multivitamin/mineral supplements, and there are also specific chromium picolinate (CrP) supplements that contain 200–600 μg chromium per tablet (10). The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has established the Recommended Daily Allowances for chromium as 50–200 μg/day for adult men and women (11), which is also the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake (ESADDI) for chromium for children aged 7 years to adulthood (7,12). However, it appears that Americans normally ingest ∼50–60% of the minimum suggested daily intake of 50 μg (7). Results from one study (10) indicated that daily chromium intakes for men and women in the U.S. were 33 and 25 μg, respectively. Therefore, normal dietary intake of chromium for adults may be suboptimal.
At dietary intakes >50 μg/day, chromium absorption is ∼0.4%, but the trivalent formulation also significantly influences bioavailability. At a dose of 1,000 μg/day, absorption of chromium from chromium chloride (CrCl3) is ∼0.4%, whereas that from CrP may be as high as 2.8% (7,13,14). Once absorbed, chromium is distributed widely in the body, with the highest levels being found in the kidney, liver, spleen, and bone (14).
BIOLOGIC ACTIONS OF CHROMIUM
How chromium serves as a cofactor for insulin action is not fully understood. From several in vivo and in vitro studies (15), it was initially thought that chromium potentiated the actions of insulin as part of an organic complex, GTF. More recent studies (15) have suggested that chromium may function as part of the oligopeptide low–molecular weight (MW) chromium (LMWCr)-binding substance (MW ∼1,500 Da), which is composed of glycine, cysteine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid...
Chromium has also been demonstrated to inhibit phosphotyrosine phosphatase, the enzyme that cleaves phosphate from the insulin receptor, leading to decreases in insulin sensitivity. Activation of insulin receptor kinase and inhibition of insulin receptor phosphatase would lead to increased phosphorylation of the insulin receptor and increased insulin sensitivity (20). The balance between kinase and phosphatase activity may facilitate the role of insulin in rapidly moving glucose into cells. In addition, it has been suggested (7) that chromium enhances insulin binding, insulin receptor number, insulin internalization, and β-cell sensitivity.
There is no clinically defined state of chromium deficiency, but diabetes has been shown (32) to develop because of low chromium levels in experimental animals and in humans sustained by prolonged TPN. These results suggest that there may be a more general relationship between chromium levels and glucose and/or lipid metabolism. It has also been suggested (35–37) that low chromium concentrations and the associated impairments in insulin, glucose, and lipid metabolism may also result in increased cardiovascular risk. In a cross-sectional analysis (38), lower toenail chromium levels have also been associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes. Adequate dietary chromium intake may be especially problematic in the elderly (39,40). Consumption of refined foods, including simple sugars, exacerbates the problem of insufficient dietary chromium because these foods are not only low in dietary chromium but also increase its loss from the body (41). Chromium losses are also increased during pregnancy and as a result of strenuous exercise, infection, physical trauma, and other forms of stress (40). Reduced chromium levels are reported in the elderly and in patients with diabetes (42,43)...
Regardless, recent studies have demonstrated the successful determination of chromium. One study reported that in >40,800 patients from ages 1 to >75 years, chromium levels in hair, sweat, and blood diminished significantly with age, with values decreasing from 25 to 40% depending on the tissue of interest (43). Additionally, it appears that diabetic subjects may have altered chromium metabolism compared with nondiabetic subjects, as both absorption and excretion may be higher (44,45). Hair and blood levels are reported (46) to be lower in diabetic subjects, with mean levels of plasma chromium of ∼33% lower in 93 type 2 diabetic subjects compared with control subjects. Another study reported that chromium levels were reduced >50% in both diabetic men and women compared with control subjects (42), which was supported by Elmekcioglu et al. (47), who reported significantly lower chromium levels in the plasma of type 2 diabetic individuals compared with nondiabetic healthy control subjects.
Dosage, formulation, duration of study.
Studies that specifically evaluated ≤200 μg of chromium chloride failed to elicit a clinical response in those with type 2 diabetes (Table 1). Uusitupa et al. (52) demonstrated a positive effect at 200 μg of the CrCl salt...
A more consistent clinical response is observed with daily supplementation of chromium >200 μg/day for a duration of ≥2 months (Table 1). In addition, other forms of chromium, especially CrP, appear to be more bioavailable and clinically more effective than chromium chloride in both human and animal studies. Evidence for a dose effect of CrP was provided by a study of Chinese type 2 diabetic subjects (45). Short-term (2 months) and long-term (4 months) efficacy were observed, as evidenced by reductions in fasting and 2-h glucose and insulin values and long-term reductions in HbA1c concentrations utilizing varying doses of CrP (200 or 1,000 μg). The effectiveness of the 1,000-μg dose in the Chinese study was reproduced in a study of individuals with the metabolic syndrome (64). In a study (57) of 30 women with gestational diabetes receiving placebo or 4 or 8 μg · kg−1 · day−1 of CrP, after 8 weeks the two groups taking chromium had significantly lower glucose and insulin levels. Finally, another (58) observed that corticosteroid-treated subjects have accelerated chromium losses and that steroid-induced diabetes was reversed with CrP supplementation at 600 μg/day.
Individuals with diabetes
Type 1 and 2 diabetes.
Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes receiving CrP experienced significant improvements in HbA1c, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), 2-h glucose (i.e., glucose levels 2 h after challenge), and fasting and 2-h insulin (45). Other investigators studied the effects of brewer’s yeast (23.3 μg chromium/day) and chromium chloride (200 μg chromium/day) on glucose tolerance, serum lipids, and antidiabetic drug dosage in a 16-week, randomized, double-blind, crossover trial that included 78 patients with type 2 diabetes (23,66). Both forms of chromium supplementation resulted in significant decreases in mean FPG, 2-h glucose, and fructosamine. Chromium treatment also slightly reduced required doses of antidiabetic drugs, and this decline achieved statistical significance for glibenclamide.
Another group assessed the effects of jiangtangkang (8 g t.i.d.), a chrysanthemum product high in chromium, on glucose and insulin metabolism in 188 patients with type 2 diabetes (67). After 2 months, jiangtangkang treatment reduced fasting and postprandial blood glucose and HbA1c without any corresponding change in plasma insulin. A 16-month, double-blind, randomized, crossover trial (32) of chromium chloride, brewer’s yeast that contained chromium as GTF, brewer’s yeast extract without GTF, and a placebo in 43 patients with diabetes also demonstrated positive effects of chromium on glucose and insulin metabolism.
One study (68) reported that 10 days of treatment with CrP (200 μg/day) significantly increased insulin sensitivity in patients with type 1 or 2 diabetes and also permitted reductions in dosages of insulin and/or oral antidiabetic drugs in these patients.
A large long-term study showed that 10 months of treatment with CrP (500 μg/day) in 833 patients with type 2 diabetes significantly improved both FPG and postprandial plasma glucose versus baseline (Fig. 3) and reduced the incidence of diabetes symptoms, including fatigue, thirst, and frequent urination (60).
braham et al. (69) treated patients with 250 μg/day CrCl3, Lee and Reasner (70) administered 200 μg/day CrP, and Uusitupa et al. (52) treated patients in their trial with 200 μg/day CrCl3. Thus, two of the three studies that failed to document significant positive effects of chromium on insulin or glucose metabolism used a poorly absorbed inorganic formulation, and the third administered a very low dose of CrP. These facts underscore the point that chromium formulation and dose must be carefully considered when evaluating results from studies that have assessed its metabolic effects in individuals with or without diabetes.
Summary.
Results from the trials noted above support the view that chromium supplementation, especially in the form of CrP, in patients with type 1, type 2, gestational, or steroid-induced diabetes can improve both glucose and insulin metabolism. The reason why chromium supplementation was ineffective in some studies is not clear, but it is worth noting that all of these trials used relatively low chromium doses (≤250 μg/day), used different forms of chromium, or had study populations composed of both diabetic and nondiabetic patients.
Individuals with the metabolic syndrome
Many patients with diabetes have additional metabolic abnormalities that, taken together, constitute what has been referred to as the metabolic syndrome. The National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III has defined the metabolic syndrome as the presence of three or more of the following conditions: waist circumference >102 cm in men and >88 cm in women, serum triglyceride level ≥150 mg/dl; HDL cholesterol <40 mg/dl in men and <50 mg/dl in women, blood pressure ≥130/85 mmHg, or serum glucose ≥110 mg/dl (71). Insulin resistance is a core feature of the metabolic syndrome and is associated with increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, even in the absence of glucose intolerance (72). Several studies have evaluated the effects of chromium supplementation in patients with components of the metabolic syndrome.
Cefalu et al. (64) assessed the effects of 8 months of treatment with CrP (1,000 μg/day) or placebo on glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and body fat in 29 subjects with >125% of ideal body weight and a family history of diabetes. Study results showed that CrP supplementation significantly improved insulin sensitivity versus placebo (Fig. 4), but had no significant effects on glucose effectiveness, body weight, abdominal fat, or BMI. These investigators suggested that the positive effect of CrP on insulin sensitivity without a corresponding change in body weight or BMI may indicate a direct effect of chromium on muscle insulin action.
Chromium effects on body weight and composition
The prevalence of obesity in the U.S. is high, and more than one-half of all adults are currently overweight or obese. Obesity significantly increases the risk for development of type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and CVD (75). Several studies have evaluated the effects of chromium supplementation on body weight and composition in individuals with and without diabetes.
Chromium supplementation has variable effects on body weight and composition in patients with diabetes (26–30,45,56,73,76,77). One study of patients with diabetes indicated no significant effects on either body weight or BMI (45), while another in elderly subjects with impaired glucose tolerance demonstrated significant reductions in BMI (30). Of the eight double-blind, placebo-controlled trials in individuals without diabetes, chromium supplementation showed decreases in weight and fat in three larger studies (26–29,56,73,76,77).
Relationship between tissue chromium levels and disease state
Risk for coronary heart disease.
Two epidemiologic studies have evaluated the relationship between Cr3 levels in toenails (a measure that can best reflect long-term intake of trace elements) and risk of coronary heart disease in men. The Health Professionals’ Follow-up Study (HPFS) is a prospective study including 33,737 male health care professionals in the U.S. who were free of chronic disease and provided toenail samples in 1987. During 7 years of follow-up, there were 367 confirmed myocardial infarctions (MIs). Two control subjects were matched to each case subject. Study results showed that the risk for MI was significantly reduced in men in the highest quintile for toenail Cr3+. However, this relationship was only significant for subjects with BMI ≥25 kg/m2 (37).
In a second study conducted in the HPFS (38), mean toenail chromium (microgram per gram) was 0.71 in healthy control subjects (n = 361), 0.61 in diabetic subjects (n = 688), and 0.52 in diabetic men with prevalent CVD (n = 198, P = 0.003 for trend). In the cross-sectional analysis, after adjustment of potential confounders, the odds ratio (OR) between extreme quartiles was 0.74 (95% CI 0.49–1.11; P = 0.18 for trend) comparing diabetic with healthy control subjects. A similar comparison between diabetic men with prevalent CVD and healthy control subjects yielded an OR of 0.45 (95% CI 0.24–0.84; P = 0.003 for trend). A nested case-control analysis comparing diabetic men with incident CVD with healthy individuals yielded similar results. These findings suggest that adequate chromium may be important for both diabetes and CVD prevention.
The results of the HPFS are consistent with those from the European Community Multicenter Study on Antioxidants, Myocardial Infarction, and Breast Cancer (EURAMIC), an incident, population-based, case-control study conducted in eight European countries and Israel to determine whether low toenail chromium concentrations are significantly associated with increased risk for MI. The study included 684 case subjects (men with a first diagnosis of MI within 24 h of admission to the hospital) and 724 control subjects (men with similar demographic characteristics, but without MI). Average toenail chromium was 1.10 mg/kg in the case subjects vs. 1.30 mg/kg in the control subjects. Additional analysis indicated that the adjusted ORs for MI for chromium quintiles 1–5 were 1.00, 0.82, 0.68, 0.60, and 0.59, respectively (82). The results of EURAMIC thus indicate that toenail chromium concentration has a clearly inverse relationship with MI risk in men. This relationship remained significant after adjusting for age, BMI, HDL cholesterol, diabetes, history of hypertension, and smoking.
SAFETY OF CHROMIUM
Most of the concerns regarding the long-term safety of chromium supplementation arise from results of several cell culture studies using supraphysiological doses that suggested that chromium, particularly in the form of CrP, may increase DNA damage. However, there is currently no evidence that chromium increases DNA damage in vivo. There have also been isolated reports (83) of serious adverse events, including kidney failure, associated with CrP treatment, but the relationship of chromium to these events is not clear. Recent reviews of the safety of CrP by the Institute of Medicine (84) and by Berner et al. (85) have concluded that CrP is safe. Results from controlled clinical trials (86) have shown that treatment with chromium at doses up to 1,000 μg/day and for periods as long as 64 months does not result in any toxic effects.
CONCLUSIONS
A large body of literature in both experimental animals and humans indicates that chromium is an essential element involved in the action of insulin as demonstrated in the studies of chromium deficiency. Although chromium deficiency has not been defined beyond that in patients receiving TPN, epidemiologic studies suggest that tissue levels of chromium are reduced among diabetic individuals, especially in those with existing CVD, compared with healthy control subjects. Two case-control studies have also found that lower toenail chromium levels predict risk of MI in apparently healthy subjects. However, further epidemiologic studies are needed to confirm these associations in different populations, and clinical trials are needed to prove the causal relationship.
Growing evidence suggests that chromium supplementation, particularly at higher doses and in the form of CrP, may improve insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism in patients with glucose intolerance and type 1, type 2, gestational, and steroid-induced diabetes and in some individuals without diabetes.
CHROMIUM CONTENT OF SOME FOODS (http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/info/books-phds/books/foodfacts/html/data/data5m.html)
FOOD CHROMIUM CONTENT FOOD
(micrograms per 100 grams of food)
Egg yolk 183
Brewer's yeast 112
Beef 57
Cheese 56
Liver 55
Wine 45
Bread, wholemeal, wheat 42
Black pepper 35
Rye bread 30
Chilli, fresh 30
Apple peel 27
Potatoes, old 27
Oysters 26
Potatoes, new 21
Margarine 18
Spaghetti 15
Cornflakes 14
Spirits 14
Butter 13
Spinach 10
Egg white 8
Oranges 5
Beer 3-30
Apples, peeled 1